Education-Vocational

INTRODUCTION
Education, Vocational, instruction in skills necessary for persons who are preparing to enter the labor force or who need training or retraining in the technology of their occupation.

The impact of technology on occupations, the tendency of employers to set higher educational requirements, and the need for employees with specialized training have made vocational preparation imperative. Part-time programs are essential in order to provide occupational mobility among workers and to overcome the effects of job obsolescence.

In the U.S., vocational education programs are conducted in public secondary schools and community colleges and are financed in part by federal funds. Other programs are conducted by business and industry, labor organizations, the armed forces, and private vocational-technical schools. Programs in both public and private institutions are general in scope, providing training for several jobs in an occupational cluster; programs conducted by business, industry, and the armed forces usually focus on particular interests. Under the Vocational Education Amendments (1968), vocational programs are administered by the U.S. Department of Education.

RANGE OF PROGRAMS
Vocational education programs range from short-unit (ten weeks or less) to long-term programs up to two years in length. The programs include numerous occupational areas, such as office skills, agriculture, various trades, health services, and technical training. The scope of vocational education is broad, ranging from occupations requiring little skill to those requiring a high degree of skill and scientific knowledge. Jobs requiring minimum training are not generally included in formal programs because the necessary skills can be readily learned on the job.

Many public and private schools offering vocational instruction operate on a so-called open-door policy, that is, anyone may attend who can profit from the instruction. The goal of the public school program is to provide access for all persons to high-quality instruction that will meet occupational opportunities. Every state department of education in the U.S. employs staff specialists in vocational education.

CAREER COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE
Although the vocational guidance and vocational education movements developed separately during the early 1900s, they later became closely associated. Today career counseling is recognized as being important for all persons. The basic principle of career counseling and guidance is that a person is better equipped to make occupational plans after determining his or her own characteristics, examining the requirements of various occupations, and matching the two sets of facts with the aid of a skilled counselor.

Various standardized tests and inventories have been developed to measure skills, aptitudes, interests, and other abilities and traits. In addition to school records, job-shadowing techniques, computerized programs, and audiovisuals are also used to assist students with occupational selection.

WORK EXPERIENCE
A major aspect of career counseling and guidance is knowledge of the world of work. Ignorance of the many ways in which people earn a living has been a great deterrent to freedom of occupational choice. To help solve this problem, some schools provide opportunity for students to gain actual work experience as part of their educational preparation. The value of work experience in education has long been recognized and is now emphasized in the counseling of youth.

Vocational education and career counseling have had the active support and participation of the trade unions and, more recently, of business and industry because both contribute to the goal of an educated labor force.

The two national professional associations concerned with vocational education and career counseling and guidance are the American Vocational Association and the National Career Development Association. Accreditation is provided by the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools.

Condom

INTRODUCTION
Condom, type of birth control in the form of a physical barrier that prevents sperm from reaching and fertilizing an egg. Condoms are available for use by both men and women. The male condom is a thin, form-fitting sheath worn on the erect penis during sexual intercourse (see Human Sexuality). The female condom, approved for use in the United States in 1993 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), consists of a thin polyurethane pouch with a ring on each end. The smaller, closed ring is placed inside the vagina and the larger, open ring remains outside the body at the opening of the vagina.

MALE CONDOM
Male condoms have been used for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Egypt when men wore colorful sheaths to cover their penises. Condoms were first used to prevent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and pregnancy in the 1600s when King Charles II of England used condoms made of sheep intestines. Early versions of the modern condom were developed and became popular in the 18th century.

Today about 18 percent of American women 15 to 44 years old who use contraception rely on male condoms. Condoms are the most common form of birth control among teenagers, single women, women with no children, and women who want to have additional children. With typical use, condoms are 84 percent effective in preventing pregnancy.

The male condom must be placed on the erect penis before the penis is inserted into the vagina. A condom can be used only once and should be removed immediately after ejaculation to prevent sperm from leaking out or the condom from slipping off.

Most male condoms are made of latex, although a small number of condoms available in the United States are made of animal tissue such as sheep membrane. Only latex condoms provide protection against STDs, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Male condoms are available without prescription in retail stores. They may be dry or lubricated and may contain spermicide (foam or jelly that kills sperm). Condoms with spermicide provide additional contraceptive protection, especially if the condom accidentally breaks or slips off. Condoms with spermicide may also increase protection against STDs. Lubricated condoms do not offer additional contraceptive or STD protection, but lubrication may help prevent the condom from tearing during intercourse. Dry condoms can be lubricated with water-based products or contraceptive foams or jellies, but they should never be coated with oil-based products such as petroleum jelly, since these products can weaken the latex and cause the condom to tear.

Condoms may break, tear, or slip off during intercourse. Condoms stored close to the body, such as in a pants pocket, may break or tear more readily because heat harms the latex. A couple must interrupt sexual activity to put on a condom before sexual intercourse. In addition, some men object to the change in sensation associated with wearing a condom. An allergy to latex prevents some individuals from using condoms.

FEMALE CONDOM
The female condom acts as a barrier by forming a sheath between the penis and the vagina, preventing sperm from reaching and fertilizing an egg. The female condom is made of plastic so it can be used with both water- and oil-based lubricants. Like the male condom, it should be used only once and removed immediately after ejaculation. With typical use, the female condom’s effectiveness in preventing pregnancy is 79 percent. It is not yet clear how much protection the female condom provides against STDs.

The female condom is available without a prescription in retail stores. It can be inserted in the vagina several hours before intercourse. Some users find it difficult to insert. In addition, the outer ring can slip into the vagina and the condom can twist during intercourse. Some couples find it irritating to the penis or the vagina.

Foreign Trade

INTRODUCTION
Foreign Trade, the exchange of goods and services between nations. Goods can be defined as finished products, as intermediate goods used in producing other goods, or as agricultural products and foodstuffs. International trade enables a nation to specialize in those goods it can produce most cheaply and efficiently. Trade also enables a country to consume more than it would be able to produce if it depended only on its own resources. Finally, trade enlarges the potential market for the goods of a particular economy. Trade has always been the major force behind the economic relations among nations.

EMERGENCE OF MODERN FOREIGN TRADE
Although foreign trade was an important part of ancient and medieval economies, it acquired new significance after about 1500. As empires and colonies were established by European countries, trade became an arm of governmental policy. The wealth of a country was measured in terms of the goods it possessed, particularly gold and precious metals. The objective of an empire was to acquire as much wealth as possible in return for as little expense as possible. This form of international trade, called mercantilism, was commonplace in the 16th and 17th centuries.

International trade began to assume its present form with the establishment of nation-states in the 17th and 18th centuries. Heads of state discovered that by promoting foreign trade they could mutually increase the wealth, and thus the power, of their nations. During this period new theories of economics, in particular of international trade, also emerged.

ADVANTAGES OF TRADE

ADVANTAGES OF TRADE
In 1776 the Scottish economist Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations, proposed that specialization in production leads to increased output. Smith believed that in order to meet a constantly growing demand for goods, a country's scarce resources must be allocated efficiently. According to Smith's theory, a country that trades internationally should specialize in producing only those goods in which it has an absolute advantage—that is, those goods it can produce more cheaply than can its trading partners. The country can then export a portion of those goods and, in turn, import goods that its trading partners produce more cheaply. Smith's work is the foundation of the classical school of economic thought.

Half a century later, the English economist David Ricardo modified this theory of international trade. Ricardo's theory, which is still accepted by most modern economists, stresses the principle of comparative advantage. Following this principle, a country can still gain from trading certain goods even though its trading partners can produce those goods more cheaply. The comparative advantage comes if each trading partner has a product that will bring a better price in another country than it will at home. If each country specializes in producing the goods in which it has a comparative advantage, more goods are produced, and the wealth of both the buying and the selling nations increases.

Besides this fundamental advantage, further economic benefits result when countries trade with one another. International trade leads to more efficient and increased world production, thus allowing countries (and individuals) to consume a larger and more diverse bundle of goods. A nation possessing limited natural resources is able to produce and consume more than it otherwise could. As noted earlier, the establishment of international trade expands the number of potential markets in which a country can sell its goods. The increased international demand for goods translates into greater production and more extensive use of raw materials and labor, which in turn leads to growth in domestic employment. Competition from international trade can also force domestic firms to become more efficient through modernization and innovation.

Within each economy, the importance of foreign trade varies. Some nations export only to expand their domestic market or to aid economically depressed sectors within the home economy. Other nations depend on trade for a large part of their national income and to supply goods for domestic consumption. In recent years foreign trade has also been viewed as a means to promote growth within a nation's economy. Developing countries and international organizations have increasingly emphasized such trade.

GOVERNMENT RESTRICTIONS

GOVERNMENT RESTRICTIONS
Because foreign trade is such an integral part of a nation's economy, governmental restrictions are sometimes necessary to protect what are regarded as national interests. Government action may occur in response to the trade policies of other countries, or it may be resorted to in order to protect specific industries. Since the beginnings of international trade, nations have striven to achieve and maintain a favorable balance of trade—that is, to export more than they import.

In a money economy, goods are not merely bartered for other goods. Instead, products are bought and sold in the international market with national currencies. In an effort to improve its balance of international payments (that is, to increase reserves of its own currency and reduce the amount held by foreigners), a country may attempt to limit imports. Such a policy aims to control the amount of currency that leaves the country.

Import Quotas
One method of limiting imports is simply to close the ports of entry into a country. More commonly, maximum allowable import quantities may be set for specific products. Such quantity restrictions are known as quotas. These may also be used to limit the amount of foreign or domestic currency that is permitted to cross national borders. Quotas are imposed as the quickest means to stop or even reverse a negative trend in a country's balance of payments. They are also used as the most effective means of protecting domestic industry from foreign competition.

Tariffs
Another common way of restricting imports is by imposing tariffs, or taxes on imported goods. A tariff, paid by the buyer of the imported product, makes the price higher for that item in the country that imported it. The higher price reduces consumer demand and thus effectively restricts the import. The taxes collected on the imported goods also increase revenues for the nation's government. Furthermore, tariffs serve as a subsidy to domestic producers of the items taxed because the higher price that results from a tariff encourages the competing domestic industry to expand production.

Nontariff Barriers to Trade
In recent years the use of nontariff barriers to trade has increased. Although these barriers are not necessarily administered by a government with the intention of regulating trade, they nevertheless have that result. Such nontariff barriers include government health and safety regulations, business codes of conduct, and domestic tax policies. Direct government support of various domestic industries is also viewed as a nontariff barrier to trade, because such support puts the aided industries at an unfair advantage among trading nations.

VISA?

INTRODUCTION
Visa, formal endorsement placed by government authorities on a passport, indicating that the passport has been examined and found valid by the nation to be visited, and that the bearer may legally go to his or her destination.

ENTRY VISA
An entry visa signifies that the bearer has received official permission to enter a country as a visitor; it does not, however, guarantee admission. Entry visas serve the general purpose of enabling a government to limit and control the entry of aliens into a country. These visas are of two general types: the passport entry visa, which is issued to persons who wish to enter a country for a visit of stated duration, and the immigration entry visa, which is issued to persons who want to enter and settle permanently in the country.

In the U.S., the requirement of entry visas became an integral part of the immigration system in 1917. Prior to that year aliens were permitted to enter the United States without a visa but were subject to exclusion on various grounds. The immigration laws were strengthened by Congress during World War I, when strict control over the entry of aliens was deemed essential to curtailing enemy espionage and sabotage. Several enactments passed since 1918 have fully defined the visa requirements for both immigrants and nonimmigrants and have rendered them increasingly stringent. Racial restrictions on the immigration and naturalization of aliens were removed and provision was made for the immigration of defectors from Communist countries by the terms of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. American consular officers may refuse entry visas to aliens only on specific grounds set forth in the immigration laws, including mental defects, affliction with a dangerous contagious disease, conviction for crimes involving moral turpitude or illicit narcotics traffic, fraud or willful misrepresentation in procuring a visa, membership in certain proscribed organizations, and prospective activities in the U.S. believed prejudicial to the public interest or dangerous to the welfare, safety, or security of the nation.

Aliens applying to U.S. consular officials abroad for immigration entry visas are normally required to present documentary evidence of their status as responsible and law-abiding citizens of their own country. They must submit to a mental and physical examination and establish their eligibility to receive an immigrant visa. Numerical limitations have been levied on the number of aliens who may immigrate to the United States each year. Certain classes of aliens, including the spouses and children of U.S. citizens, are exempt from numerical limitations.

EXIT VISA
Some nations require that their own citizens obtain exit visas—that is, government authorization to leave the country—before traveling or settling abroad. Exit visas are frequently required by countries in which unfavorable political, social, or economic conditions have resulted in a marked rise in emigration. By restricting exit visas, such countries can check or even halt the flow of emigrants. Notable among the governments that instituted the use of exit visas were the Fascist regime in Italy, from 1922 to 1943, and the National Socialist regime in Germany, from 1933 to 1945. China and a number of other countries have continued this practice to the present time.

MODERN LOGIC

MODERN LOGIC
In the middle of the 19th century, the British mathematicians George Boole and Augustus De Morgan opened a new field of logic, now known as symbolic or modern logic, which was further developed by the German mathematician Gottlob Frege and especially by the British mathematicians Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in Principia Mathematica (3 volumes, 1910-13). The logical system of Russell and Whitehead covers a far greater range of possible arguments than those that can be cast into syllogistic form. It introduces symbols for complete sentences and for the conjunctions that connect them, such as “or,””and,” and “If . . . then. . . .” It has different symbols for the logical subject and the logical predicate of a sentence; and it has symbols for classes, for members of classes, and for the relationships of class membership and class inclusion. It also differs from classical logic in its assumptions as to the existence of the things referred to in its universal statements. The statement “All A's are B's” is rendered in modern logic to mean, “If anything is an A, then it is a B,” which, unlike classical logic, does not assume that any A's exist.
Both classical logic and modern logic are systems of deductive logic. In a sense, the premises of a valid argument contain the conclusion, and the truth of the conclusion follows from the truth of the premises with certainty. Efforts have also been made to develop systems of inductive logic, such that the premises are evidence for the conclusion, but the truth of the conclusion follows from the truth of the evidence only with a certain probability. The most notable contribution to inductive logic is that of the British philosopher John Stuart Mill, who in his System of Logic (1843) formulated the methods of proof that he believed to characterize empirical science. This inquiry has developed in the 20th century into the field known as philosophy of science. Closely related is the branch of mathematics known as probability theory.

Both classical and modern logic in their usual forms assume that any well-formed sentence is either true or false. In recent years efforts have been made to develop systems of so-called many-valued logic, such that an assertion may have some value other than true or false. In some this is merely a third neutral value; in others it is a probability value expressed as a fraction ranging between 0 and 1 or between -1 and +1. Another development in recent years has been the effort to develop systems of modal logic, to represent the logical relations between assertions of possibility and impossibility, necessity and contingency. Still another development is deontic logic, the investigation of the logical relations between commands or between statements of obligation.

ARISTOTELIAN LOGIC

What is now known as classical or traditional logic was first formulated by Aristotle, who developed rules for correct syllogistic reasoning. A syllogism is an argument made up of statements in one of four forms: “All A's are B's” (universal affirmative), “No A's are B's” (universal negative), “Some A's are B's” (particular affirmative), or “Some A's are not B's” (particular negative). The letters stand for common nouns, such as “dog,””four-footed animal,””living thing,” which are called the terms of the syllogism. A well-formed syllogism consists of two premises and a conclusion, each premise having one term in common with the conclusion and one in common with the other premise. In classical logic, rules are formulated by which all well-formed syllogisms are identified as valid or invalid forms of argument.

Logic

INTRODUCTION
Logic (Greek logos, “word,” “speech,” “reason”), science dealing with the principles of valid reasoning and argument. The study of logic is the effort to determine the conditions under which one is justified in passing from given statements, called premises, to a conclusion that is claimed to follow from them. Logical validity is a relationship between the premises and the conclusion such that if the premises are true then the conclusion is true.
The validity of an argument should be distinguished from the truth of the conclusion. If one or more of the premises is false, the conclusion of a valid argument may be false. For example, “All mammals are four-footed animals; all people are mammals; therefore, all people are four-footed animals” is a valid argument with a false conclusion. On the other hand, an invalid argument may by chance have a true conclusion. “Some animals are two-footed; all people are animals; therefore, all people are two-footed” happens to have a true conclusion, but the argument is not valid. Logical validity depends on the form of the argument, not on its content. If the argument were valid, some other term could be substituted for all occurrences of any one of those used and validity would not be affected. By substituting “four-footed” for “two-footed,” it can be seen that the premises could both be true and the conclusion false. Thus the argument is invalid, even though it has a true conclusion.

Poem

Poem

Writing poetry is an opportunity to let your imagination soar—freedom some students love and others find intimidating. Breaking down the process of writing your poem into manageable tasks can make it a little easier.

Task 1: Requirements

Make sure you understand what your teacher expects of you. Review all of the information you have about the assignment and verify that you can answer the following questions. If you don’t know an answer, ask your teacher.
When is your poem due?
Is there a requirement for style or length?
Did your teacher provide any other guidelines for your poem?

Task 2: Topic

Whether you’re starting from scratch or your teacher gave you a starting point—such as a poem about nature or love or humor—your first job is to decide what to write about.


1. Start by brainstorming. Don’t censor yourself—write down any ideas that come to mind. If you’re having trouble coming up with ideas, consider using something that you know, such as a hobby or a special interest.


Once you have a few ideas down on paper, pick the one that most appeals to you. Example: Your teacher assigned you to write a poem on any subject, so you started by taking stock of the world around you. You considered writing about your best friend, your pet cat, or the madness of the city at rush hour. Instead, you settled on writing about your second-best friend: your violin.


2. Now take a look at your subject and determine what makes it special. Poetry draws pictures with words. Pick out the elements you wish to draw. Pay special attention to the little things, the details of your subject. Example: Your violin is secondhand, smooth to the touch, familiar, aggravating, out of tune, surly, twangy, shrill, mellifluous, comforting, never out of your sight.


Task 3: Write

Find a quiet spot and start writing—now, don’t put it off. Most writers will tell you that the hardest part of their craft is simply applying “seat of pants to seat of chair.”


1. Write down your thoughts about your topic—even if you don’t think you have anything to say. Start with paragraphs of gibberish if you have to. Let the words come to you. As you write, let your imagination roam freely. Poetry is all about mood, feelings, and word pictures. Tip: Don’t get distracted by spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Right now your job is to have fun and be creative. Pay attention to the moods and feelings the words create, but don’t dwell on finding the perfect words. Get your thoughts and feelings down now, you can refine them later.


2. Rewrite your thoughts, this time breaking them into lines. Devote one line to each thought.


3. Relax! You’ve done it—you’ve written a poem. The hardest part is behind you. If you can spare the time, don’t even think about your poem for a day or two. This will help you approach the next step with a fresh eye.

Task 4: Rewrite


As any poet will tell you, rewriting is one of the most important parts of the creative writing process.


Read your poem, line by line. As you read each line, ask yourself:
What is the main point of this line?
Do I use vivid imagery to show my readers the main point, or am I simply telling it to them? If it’s the latter, rework the line to paint a visual picture.
How does the rhythm of the words sound? Are my lines fairly uniform in length and complexity? Shorten any unwieldy lines by simplifying them or breaking them into two lines.

Task 5: Final draft


You’re almost done.


1. Run a spell check on your poem.


2. Read your poem from start to finish, the same way your teacher will. Fix any grammar mistakes or other errors you find.


3. Once you’re satisfied your poem represents your best effort, get a second opinion. Ask a parent or other trusted person to read your piece with a critical eye and to give you feedback. Make any changes you think necessary.


4. Read your poem one last time to make sure you didn’t introduce any new errors.


5. Hand in your work. Congratulations!

TIER Rules of United Kingdom

Tier 4 visa– students:
The fourth tier of the new points based UK immigration service focuses upon overseas students who wish to gain entry clearance to study in the UK. Tier 4 visas replace the UK student visa service and place more emphasis upon the responsibility of the educational body in question for the applicants they permit to study. The aim of this tier immigration service is to provide a more user-friendly, transparent route to studying in the UK.
With the exception of tier 1 visas, which directly replace the Highly Skilled Migrant Programme or HSMP, all tier visas for the new system will require a certificate of sponsorship from the relevant sponsor. In this case, the sponsor will be the educational institution offering a place which a student has accepted. Each sponsoring institution will be required to vouch for the ability of students.
Our immigration consultants can guide you at every stage of obtaining a visa for the UK, whichever tier visa service is right for you. As a specialist UK immigration consultancy, we can offer immigration lawyer advice on your initial application and can help you adjust to living and working in the UK through a range of on arrival services. (More on Official URL)

EDV United States

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